Brief sessions of mental exercise can have lasting benefits for older adults, even five years later. A recent study of healthy seniors found that up to 10 one-hour sessions of mental training can delay an age-related drop in thinking skills and possibly protect the ability to perform everyday tasks, such as shopping, driving, making meals and managing money.
A scientific team based at six sites across the country examined 2,802 adults, ages 65 and older. The participants were all living independently and had normal mental function when the study began. Called Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly (ACTIVE), the study was funded by NIH's National Institute on Aging and National Institute of Nursing Research.
Participants were randomly assigned to four groups. A control group received no training. The other groups attended up to 10 training sessions, over a five- to six-week period, to improve a particular mental ability. One group received memory training, learning techniques for recalling word lists, sequences and stories. Another group practiced reasoning skills, learning strategies for finding patterns or identifying the next item in a series. The fourth group focused on mental speed, learning to identify objects shown for increasingly brief intervals on a computer screen.
The researchers evaluated all participants before and after the initial training, with a final assessment after five years. Some participants also took four additional “booster” sessions, based on their initial training, about one and three years after the first sessions.
ACTIVE is the first carefully controlled large study to show that brief mental training can have long-term positive effects in older adults. The researchers report in the December 20, 2006 issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association that all three treatment groups showed improvement in the specific skills taught two years after the initial training. By the five-year assessment, each training group performed better on tests in their respective areas than the control group. Participants who received booster training in reasoning skills and mental speed showed the greatest benefit.
"The improvements seen after the training roughly counteract the degree of decline in cognitive performance that we would expect to see over a 7- to 14-year period among older people without dementia,” said lead author Dr. Sherry L. Willis of Pennsylvania State University.
The researchers also found that five years after the initial training, all three treatment groups reported less difficulty than the control group in performing common activities, such as preparing meals and doing housework. However, the difference was large enough only for the reasoning group to prove it wasn't due to chance.
These results are encouraging, but longer-term studies will be needed to determine if mental exercises can bring lasting improvement to the activities of daily life.
YOU CAN CONTACT NIH RESEARCH MATTERS VIA EMAIL AND ADDRESS:
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Editor: Harrison Wein, Ph.D.
Assistant Editors: Vicki Contie, Carol Torgan, Ph.D.
NIH Research Matters is a weekly update of NIH research highlights from the Office of Communications and Public Liaison, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health.
Saturday 22 February 2014
Vitamin D Levels Predict Multiple Sclerosis Progression
Among people with early-stage multiple sclerosis (MS), those with higher blood levels of vitamin D had better outcomes during 5 years of follow-up. Identifying and correcting vitamin D insufficiency could aid in the early treatment of MS.
MS is an unpredictable disease of the central nervous system that disrupts communication between the brain and other parts of the body. It’s believed to be an autoimmune disease, in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheaths that insulate nerves. The disease can range from relatively mild to devastating.
People who have low levels of vitamin D intake or low blood levels of vitamin D have a higher risk for MS. This suggests that vitamin D is related to the disease, but it’s unclear whether low vitamin D levels are a cause or a consequence of MS.
An international team of researchers, led by Dr. Alberto Ascherio of Harvard School of Public Health, set out to assess whether vitamin D status early in the disease process influences the long-term course of the disease. The study was funded in part by NIH’s National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). It appeared online on January 20, 2013, inJAMA Neurology.
The team examined data from 465 people with early-stage MS who were enrolled in a large clinical trial originally designed to evaluate an MS drug called interferon beta-1b. The participants—from 18 European countries, Israel, and Canada—were mostly white individuals of European ancestry.
A common marker of vitamin D status—serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D)—was measured at baseline (the onset of symptoms) and 6, 12, and 24 months later. Participants were followed for 5 years with clinical assessments and MRI scans to monitor brain lesions and brain volume. Data were adjusted for age, sex, body mass index, and seasonal variation in vitamin D levels.
The researchers found that higher serum 25(OH)D levels in the first 12 months predicted reduced MS activity and a slower rate of MS progression. By the end of the follow-up at 5 years, participants with serum 25(OH)D concentrations of at least 50 nmol/L (20-ng/mL, a moderate level) had significantly fewer new active lesions, a slower increase in brain lesion volume, lower loss of brain volume, and lower disability than those with serum 25(OH)D concentrations below 50 nmol/L. These results suggest that vitamin D has a protective effect on the disease process underlying MS.
“The benefits of vitamin D appeared to be additive to those of interferon beta-1b, a drug that is very effective in reducing MS activity,” Ascherio says. “The findings of our study indicate that identifying and correcting vitamin D insufficiency should become part of the standard of care for newly diagnosed MS patients.”
—by Carol Torgan, Ph.D.
Culled from www.nih.gov
MS is an unpredictable disease of the central nervous system that disrupts communication between the brain and other parts of the body. It’s believed to be an autoimmune disease, in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheaths that insulate nerves. The disease can range from relatively mild to devastating.
People who have low levels of vitamin D intake or low blood levels of vitamin D have a higher risk for MS. This suggests that vitamin D is related to the disease, but it’s unclear whether low vitamin D levels are a cause or a consequence of MS.
An international team of researchers, led by Dr. Alberto Ascherio of Harvard School of Public Health, set out to assess whether vitamin D status early in the disease process influences the long-term course of the disease. The study was funded in part by NIH’s National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). It appeared online on January 20, 2013, inJAMA Neurology.
The team examined data from 465 people with early-stage MS who were enrolled in a large clinical trial originally designed to evaluate an MS drug called interferon beta-1b. The participants—from 18 European countries, Israel, and Canada—were mostly white individuals of European ancestry.
A common marker of vitamin D status—serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25[OH]D)—was measured at baseline (the onset of symptoms) and 6, 12, and 24 months later. Participants were followed for 5 years with clinical assessments and MRI scans to monitor brain lesions and brain volume. Data were adjusted for age, sex, body mass index, and seasonal variation in vitamin D levels.
The researchers found that higher serum 25(OH)D levels in the first 12 months predicted reduced MS activity and a slower rate of MS progression. By the end of the follow-up at 5 years, participants with serum 25(OH)D concentrations of at least 50 nmol/L (20-ng/mL, a moderate level) had significantly fewer new active lesions, a slower increase in brain lesion volume, lower loss of brain volume, and lower disability than those with serum 25(OH)D concentrations below 50 nmol/L. These results suggest that vitamin D has a protective effect on the disease process underlying MS.
“The benefits of vitamin D appeared to be additive to those of interferon beta-1b, a drug that is very effective in reducing MS activity,” Ascherio says. “The findings of our study indicate that identifying and correcting vitamin D insufficiency should become part of the standard of care for newly diagnosed MS patients.”
—by Carol Torgan, Ph.D.
Culled from www.nih.gov
Tuesday 18 February 2014
Application Software
What is Application Software?
Application software is any tool that functions and is operated by means of a computer, with the purpose of supporting or improving the software user's work. Examples of application software are: MS Office 2003 and 2007, mozilla firefox ( Browser ), Encarta ms word, adobe acrobat, notepad wordpad and several others.
Application software is any tool that functions and is operated by means of a computer, with the purpose of supporting or improving the software user's work. Examples of application software are: MS Office 2003 and 2007, mozilla firefox ( Browser ), Encarta ms word, adobe acrobat, notepad wordpad and several others.
Application software utilizes the capacities of a computer directly for a dedicated task. Application software is able to manipulate text, numbers and graphics. It can be in the form of software focused on a certain single task like word processing, spreadsheet or playing of audio and video files.
In information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity.
Types of Application Software
A number of applications put together make an application software. These applications have common features, functions and have common user interface. These applications are able to interact with each other and work in tandem.
1. Enterprise resource planning software: These software are of help in taking care of the different organizational needs. They are often used in large business setup.
2. Content access software: It is used for accessing different kind of content without making any changes to it. An exception in this kind of software is the software used for editing the content itself. The content access software are useful for people in the field of digital content.
3. Educational software: These software are made according to the need of the students and the educators. Some of the activities included in these software are mock tests, assignments, progress tracking, etc.
4. Collaborative software: These are often Internet-based software, which often involve the use of more than 1 person.
5. Enterprise infrastructure software: It supports the software systems in an organization. Normally, the different databases, email servers, etc., are included under this category.Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.
6. Media development software: These software are used by people in both the print and the digital software. They can also be used in educational institutions along with commercial setups.
A number of applications put together make an application software. These applications have common features, functions and have common user interface. These applications are able to interact with each other and work in tandem.
1. Enterprise resource planning software: These software are of help in taking care of the different organizational needs. They are often used in large business setup.
2. Content access software: It is used for accessing different kind of content without making any changes to it. An exception in this kind of software is the software used for editing the content itself. The content access software are useful for people in the field of digital content.
3. Educational software: These software are made according to the need of the students and the educators. Some of the activities included in these software are mock tests, assignments, progress tracking, etc.
4. Collaborative software: These are often Internet-based software, which often involve the use of more than 1 person.
5. Enterprise infrastructure software: It supports the software systems in an organization. Normally, the different databases, email servers, etc., are included under this category.Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.
6. Media development software: These software are used by people in both the print and the digital software. They can also be used in educational institutions along with commercial setups.
7. Simulation software simulates physical or abstract systems for either research, training or entertainment purposes.
8. Media development software generates print and electronic media for others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes graphic-art software, desktop publishing software, multimedia development software, HTML editors, digital-animation editors, digital audio and video composition, and many others.
9.Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling tools, integrated development environments, and application programmer interfaces.
10. Information worker software lets users create and manage information, often for individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples include time management, resource management, documentation tools, analytical, and collaborative. Word processors, spreadsheets, email and blog clients, personal information system, and individual media editors may aid in multiple information worker tasks.
Read and share :).
Culled from www.buzzle.com, wiki.com and wikipedia.
Saturday 15 February 2014
Business Ideas 2014 Part 1
Startups.co.uk’s 14 best business ideas for 2014 are:
Microbrewery - Inspired by a craft beer renaissance in the US, microbreweries are growing in the UK as consumers turn away from commercially-brewed beers. With the alcoholic drinks industry predicted to grow to an estimated £45 billion by 2017, this sector holds opportunities for entrepreneurs keen to join the UK’s “craft beer revolution”.
Personal trainer - The fitness market is worth over £3 billion and although figures show the obesity crisis is worsening, both the fit and overweight alike are fuelling personal training industry. With Olympic medallist Victoria Pendleton announcing plans to become a personal trainer, 2014 marks a great to time to join her.
Virtual assistant - Demand for the online work market is rising and if estimations are correct, it will be a $5 billion global market by 2018. As more and more businesses turn away from full-time in-house assistants to their online counterparts, 2014 will see virtual assistants multiply.
Niche price comparison website - Starting up in an established market might seem counter-intuitive but with several verticals not yet targeted, in 2014 niche price comparison sites will become big business, especially as the market has now reached the £1 billion mark.
Raspberry Pi accessories - The Raspberry Pi microcomputer, essentially a credit-card sized miniature PC, is gathering steam having now sold over two million units and has garnered huge press and public attention as well as backing from Google. 2014 will see the growth of add-ons to complement this innovative offering.
Victorian-themed business - Victoriana is experiencing a revival; helped by the popularity of shows such as Mr Selfridge and multiple remakes of Sherlock Holmes. Romanticism of all things Victorian has grown across all sectors; taxidermy, fashion and weddings in particular, with designer Marc Jacobs’ Spring collection inspired by the era.
Independent BYOD consultant - More and more businesses are turning to IT professionals to help them navigate the rising ‘bring your own device’ (BYOD) trend. Coupled with the growth in remote working, expect to see booming demand for IT experts who specialise in this area.
Mobile catering - Global cuisine on the go and health drinks will be big again in 2014 and with pop-up catering gaining real momentum amid emerging commercial centres around the UK, mobile food and drinks businesses will be in high-demand this year.
Blogging business - Not a new opportunity by any means but as more companies turn to the “blogosphere” to engage with consumers, a blogging business is still a great opportunity for 2014 – and refinements to blogging platforms and advertising interest are fuelling the market.
Data analytics - The rise of “Big Data”, with 90% of all the information on the web created in the last two years, shows no signs of abating. Businesses are increasingly looking for help to make sense of this data – including the government’s pledge to release its vast vault – so this market represents huge potential for entrepreneurs smart enough to capital on it.
Oculus Rift game development - Virtual reality was an unrealised dream, up until now. With Oculus Rift, the world’s first virtual reality device, set to launch later this year, this area could be the making of any software developer.
Cleantech business - By 2050, the world’s population is expected to exceed nine billion and the demands on our natural resources and environment will be more evident than ever before. Government is calling on entrepreneurs to help tackle this issue making an eco-friendly start-up the way forward.
Regional coworking office - Start-up clusters are emerging across the UK, not just in Londo. With areas such as Manchester, Newcastle and Brighton increasingly becoming key areas of tech innovation cowork offices in locations further afield makes for an attractive proposition for 2014.
Boutique care home - The Baby Boomer generation are reaching a pensionable age and having fought for civil rights, feminism and liberalisation will demand greater degrees of independence, control and personalisation as an antidote to existing retirement living options. Expect to see boutique care homes become a reality in 2014.
Ian Wallis, editor of Startups.co.uk, discussed the predictions: ‘The shift to niche products and services was so apparent to us as we explored the start-up marketplace. Personalisation, independence, diversity and uniqueness are terms that bind the trends we’ve identified together.
‘Those with fevered entrepreneurial minds never cease from coming up with great business ideas and while we know execution is ultimately the critical factor, there are some truly inspiring opportunities out there.
‘Whether somewhat obscure or the next big thing, this list represents the tip of the iceberg for the entrepreneurial ingenuity we’re seeing. And combined with growing start-up support and the thawing of Britain’s frozen economy we expect 2014 to stand-out as a great time to start a business.’
Culled from www.talkbusinessmagazine.co.uk
Microbrewery - Inspired by a craft beer renaissance in the US, microbreweries are growing in the UK as consumers turn away from commercially-brewed beers. With the alcoholic drinks industry predicted to grow to an estimated £45 billion by 2017, this sector holds opportunities for entrepreneurs keen to join the UK’s “craft beer revolution”.
Personal trainer - The fitness market is worth over £3 billion and although figures show the obesity crisis is worsening, both the fit and overweight alike are fuelling personal training industry. With Olympic medallist Victoria Pendleton announcing plans to become a personal trainer, 2014 marks a great to time to join her.
Virtual assistant - Demand for the online work market is rising and if estimations are correct, it will be a $5 billion global market by 2018. As more and more businesses turn away from full-time in-house assistants to their online counterparts, 2014 will see virtual assistants multiply.
Niche price comparison website - Starting up in an established market might seem counter-intuitive but with several verticals not yet targeted, in 2014 niche price comparison sites will become big business, especially as the market has now reached the £1 billion mark.
Raspberry Pi accessories - The Raspberry Pi microcomputer, essentially a credit-card sized miniature PC, is gathering steam having now sold over two million units and has garnered huge press and public attention as well as backing from Google. 2014 will see the growth of add-ons to complement this innovative offering.
Victorian-themed business - Victoriana is experiencing a revival; helped by the popularity of shows such as Mr Selfridge and multiple remakes of Sherlock Holmes. Romanticism of all things Victorian has grown across all sectors; taxidermy, fashion and weddings in particular, with designer Marc Jacobs’ Spring collection inspired by the era.
Independent BYOD consultant - More and more businesses are turning to IT professionals to help them navigate the rising ‘bring your own device’ (BYOD) trend. Coupled with the growth in remote working, expect to see booming demand for IT experts who specialise in this area.
Mobile catering - Global cuisine on the go and health drinks will be big again in 2014 and with pop-up catering gaining real momentum amid emerging commercial centres around the UK, mobile food and drinks businesses will be in high-demand this year.
Blogging business - Not a new opportunity by any means but as more companies turn to the “blogosphere” to engage with consumers, a blogging business is still a great opportunity for 2014 – and refinements to blogging platforms and advertising interest are fuelling the market.
Data analytics - The rise of “Big Data”, with 90% of all the information on the web created in the last two years, shows no signs of abating. Businesses are increasingly looking for help to make sense of this data – including the government’s pledge to release its vast vault – so this market represents huge potential for entrepreneurs smart enough to capital on it.
Oculus Rift game development - Virtual reality was an unrealised dream, up until now. With Oculus Rift, the world’s first virtual reality device, set to launch later this year, this area could be the making of any software developer.
Cleantech business - By 2050, the world’s population is expected to exceed nine billion and the demands on our natural resources and environment will be more evident than ever before. Government is calling on entrepreneurs to help tackle this issue making an eco-friendly start-up the way forward.
Regional coworking office - Start-up clusters are emerging across the UK, not just in Londo. With areas such as Manchester, Newcastle and Brighton increasingly becoming key areas of tech innovation cowork offices in locations further afield makes for an attractive proposition for 2014.
Boutique care home - The Baby Boomer generation are reaching a pensionable age and having fought for civil rights, feminism and liberalisation will demand greater degrees of independence, control and personalisation as an antidote to existing retirement living options. Expect to see boutique care homes become a reality in 2014.
Ian Wallis, editor of Startups.co.uk, discussed the predictions: ‘The shift to niche products and services was so apparent to us as we explored the start-up marketplace. Personalisation, independence, diversity and uniqueness are terms that bind the trends we’ve identified together.
‘Those with fevered entrepreneurial minds never cease from coming up with great business ideas and while we know execution is ultimately the critical factor, there are some truly inspiring opportunities out there.
‘Whether somewhat obscure or the next big thing, this list represents the tip of the iceberg for the entrepreneurial ingenuity we’re seeing. And combined with growing start-up support and the thawing of Britain’s frozen economy we expect 2014 to stand-out as a great time to start a business.’
Culled from www.talkbusinessmagazine.co.uk
Monday 10 February 2014
Growth In Technology
Science and technological innovations have not only brought prosperity to our lives, but have also given us a new vision.Today, we have advanced computers, highly efficient machines, mobile phones, and satellite mapping, the scope of technological advancement has only increased. Every day a new mobile device, a better and faster computer, or a smarter car engine is developed.
Today, lets briefly look at the various innovations over the last 5 decades in the history of technology starting from the 1950s.The 1950s
The 50's saw a number of important inventions that have substantially changed our lives. Here is a brief account of some of the inventions of the 1950s.
Optical Fibers
Original Paper: A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning - Nature, 1954
Optical fiber was invented in 1956. Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany, of Imperial College, London invented it. It is used in fiber-optic communication, which is superior to other forms of communication, and operates on the principle of total internal reflection. Optical fiber transmitters are capable of sending up to 10 billion bits of information per second! Optical fiber is used for illumination in the medical field. They are used in medical and industrial endoscopes. Sometimes they are used as decorations and also in remote sensing.
Video Cassette Recorder (Model Name: Ampex VRX-1000)
The video cassette recorder was invented in 1956. Technically, the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus (VERA), trialed by the BBC, is the first VCR to be invented. However, the model introduced by Ampex overrode the VERA and became the most popular VCR to be used. This was obviously unaffordable for the ordinary people and only television networks used it. The primary function of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio signals.
Hovercraft (Also called: Air-Cushion Vehicle (ACV))
Christopher Cockerell invented the Hovercraft. The Hovercraft moves over water surface floating on a layer of air, which would reduce friction between the vehicle and water. It is an amphibious vehicle. Hovercrafts have also been used for military purposes. Hovercrafts are still in use in some parts of England.
Oral Contraceptive
Consumer Base: 100 million women worldwide
Gregory Pincus and Min Chueh Chang together invented the first oral contraceptive pill. These are synthetic hormones that simulate the action of progesterone and estrogen in a woman's body. OC pills are widely used all over the world as a popular method of birth control.
Credit Card
Conceptualization and Invention by: Ralph Schneider and Frank McNamara
Diner's Club introduced credit cards in 1950. Later American Express issued them in 1958. The Credit card is a plastic card that eliminates the need to carry cash. One can use the Credit card to withdraw cash from automated teller machines, or one may simply 'swipe' the card to register a particular purchase so that they can pay for it at a later date. Credit cards are used universally in this age.
Barcode
Did you know that earlier prototypes of the barcode use ultraviolet ink and Morse code?
Barcode is found on almost all items now. It is a code, which is unique for each item. A barcode scanner reads the code. Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver invented it in 1952. It was initially used to identify railroad cars. In 1966 they were bought in commercial use. However it was only in the 80s that barcodes were commercially successful.
Black Box Flight Recorder
Earliest Attempt: François Hussenot and Paul Beaudouin (1939)
The first prototype meant for a civilian aircraft was designed by Dr. David Warren of the Defense Science and Technology Organisation's Aeronautical Research Laboratories in Melbourne, Australia.
In case of flight accident, the investigators search for the black box flight recorder first. It could continually store up to four hours of speech, prior to any aircraft accident, as well as record flight instrument readings. David Warren of the Aeronautical Research Laboratories in Melbourne, Australia invented it in 1953.
Power Steering
Earliest Attempt: 1876 by a man with the last name Fitts
One of the best inventions with respect to cars, I'll say; and people who need to drive everyday will agree with me! The first modern power steering system was invented by Francis W. Davis in 1926. However, it came into everyday use in the 1950s, with Chrysler Corporations 'Hydraguide'.
Musical Synthesizer
Did you know that the earliest Synthesizer did not produce sounds in real time?
The Electronic Music Synthesizer manufactured by Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1951-52 was much different from the synthesizers in use now, the major difference being the fact that the earliest model did not produce sounds in real time! It was used more as a composition machine. The 1957 model, however, was largely used by many famous composers.
Photovoltaic Cell
Inventors: Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson
Though the photovoltaic effect had been realized by Becquerel as early as in 1839, the first practical modern photovoltaic cell did not come into existence well over 100 years after. Earlier photovoltaic cells were used only for toys, since the electrical energy they produced cost almost $250 a unit, as compared to that produced using coal (only $2 to $3). Now, however, photovoltaic cells are in common use.
Teflon Coated Pan
Chemical Name of Teflon: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Dr. Roy Plunkett invented the Teflon material in 1938. It was used in the Manhattan Project and was initially regarded a military secret. Later however, DuPont company (Whom Dr. Plunkett worked for) found commercial application for Teflon in bread and cookie making. Finally, a French couple - Colette and Marc Grégoire - brought Teflon to the common man.
Tetracycline
Tetracycline antibiotics should not be had with milk since calcium ions inactivate tetracycline
Benjamin Minge Duggar was the one to originally discover tetracycline. However, the chemical structure of a related compound (oxytetracycline) was illustrated by Professor Robert Woodward of Harvard University. As far as 'invention' aspect of tetracycline goes, it is Woodward who patented a fermentation process to manufacture the drug on a large scale.
Other Inventions of the 1950s
Mr Potato Head (the toy) was patented
Laser, invented by Gordon Gould
Hula Hoop, by Richard Knerr and Arthur "Spud" Melin
Pacemaker, by Wilson Greatbatch
Microchip, by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
"Peanuts", the comic strip, by Charles M. Schulz
Telephone Answering Machine, by Bell Laboratories and Western Electric
The first McDonalds started by Ray Kroc
Car seat belts were introduced in the 1950s
Jonas Salk developed a vaccine against polio myelitis
The Barbie Doll (launched in 1959)
The 1960sOriginal Paper: A flexible fibrescope, using static scanning - Nature, 1954
Optical fiber was invented in 1956. Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany, of Imperial College, London invented it. It is used in fiber-optic communication, which is superior to other forms of communication, and operates on the principle of total internal reflection. Optical fiber transmitters are capable of sending up to 10 billion bits of information per second! Optical fiber is used for illumination in the medical field. They are used in medical and industrial endoscopes. Sometimes they are used as decorations and also in remote sensing.
Video Cassette Recorder (Model Name: Ampex VRX-1000)
The video cassette recorder was invented in 1956. Technically, the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus (VERA), trialed by the BBC, is the first VCR to be invented. However, the model introduced by Ampex overrode the VERA and became the most popular VCR to be used. This was obviously unaffordable for the ordinary people and only television networks used it. The primary function of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio signals.
Hovercraft (Also called: Air-Cushion Vehicle (ACV))
Christopher Cockerell invented the Hovercraft. The Hovercraft moves over water surface floating on a layer of air, which would reduce friction between the vehicle and water. It is an amphibious vehicle. Hovercrafts have also been used for military purposes. Hovercrafts are still in use in some parts of England.
Oral Contraceptive
Consumer Base: 100 million women worldwide
Gregory Pincus and Min Chueh Chang together invented the first oral contraceptive pill. These are synthetic hormones that simulate the action of progesterone and estrogen in a woman's body. OC pills are widely used all over the world as a popular method of birth control.
Credit Card
Conceptualization and Invention by: Ralph Schneider and Frank McNamara
Diner's Club introduced credit cards in 1950. Later American Express issued them in 1958. The Credit card is a plastic card that eliminates the need to carry cash. One can use the Credit card to withdraw cash from automated teller machines, or one may simply 'swipe' the card to register a particular purchase so that they can pay for it at a later date. Credit cards are used universally in this age.
Barcode
Did you know that earlier prototypes of the barcode use ultraviolet ink and Morse code?
Barcode is found on almost all items now. It is a code, which is unique for each item. A barcode scanner reads the code. Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver invented it in 1952. It was initially used to identify railroad cars. In 1966 they were bought in commercial use. However it was only in the 80s that barcodes were commercially successful.
Black Box Flight Recorder
Earliest Attempt: François Hussenot and Paul Beaudouin (1939)
The first prototype meant for a civilian aircraft was designed by Dr. David Warren of the Defense Science and Technology Organisation's Aeronautical Research Laboratories in Melbourne, Australia.
In case of flight accident, the investigators search for the black box flight recorder first. It could continually store up to four hours of speech, prior to any aircraft accident, as well as record flight instrument readings. David Warren of the Aeronautical Research Laboratories in Melbourne, Australia invented it in 1953.
Power Steering
Earliest Attempt: 1876 by a man with the last name Fitts
One of the best inventions with respect to cars, I'll say; and people who need to drive everyday will agree with me! The first modern power steering system was invented by Francis W. Davis in 1926. However, it came into everyday use in the 1950s, with Chrysler Corporations 'Hydraguide'.
Musical Synthesizer
Did you know that the earliest Synthesizer did not produce sounds in real time?
The Electronic Music Synthesizer manufactured by Radio Corporation of America (RCA) in 1951-52 was much different from the synthesizers in use now, the major difference being the fact that the earliest model did not produce sounds in real time! It was used more as a composition machine. The 1957 model, however, was largely used by many famous composers.
Photovoltaic Cell
Inventors: Daryl Chapin, Calvin Souther Fuller and Gerald Pearson
Though the photovoltaic effect had been realized by Becquerel as early as in 1839, the first practical modern photovoltaic cell did not come into existence well over 100 years after. Earlier photovoltaic cells were used only for toys, since the electrical energy they produced cost almost $250 a unit, as compared to that produced using coal (only $2 to $3). Now, however, photovoltaic cells are in common use.
Teflon Coated Pan
Chemical Name of Teflon: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Dr. Roy Plunkett invented the Teflon material in 1938. It was used in the Manhattan Project and was initially regarded a military secret. Later however, DuPont company (Whom Dr. Plunkett worked for) found commercial application for Teflon in bread and cookie making. Finally, a French couple - Colette and Marc Grégoire - brought Teflon to the common man.
Tetracycline
Tetracycline antibiotics should not be had with milk since calcium ions inactivate tetracycline
Benjamin Minge Duggar was the one to originally discover tetracycline. However, the chemical structure of a related compound (oxytetracycline) was illustrated by Professor Robert Woodward of Harvard University. As far as 'invention' aspect of tetracycline goes, it is Woodward who patented a fermentation process to manufacture the drug on a large scale.
Other Inventions of the 1950s
Mr Potato Head (the toy) was patented
Laser, invented by Gordon Gould
Hula Hoop, by Richard Knerr and Arthur "Spud" Melin
Pacemaker, by Wilson Greatbatch
Microchip, by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce
"Peanuts", the comic strip, by Charles M. Schulz
Telephone Answering Machine, by Bell Laboratories and Western Electric
The first McDonalds started by Ray Kroc
Car seat belts were introduced in the 1950s
Jonas Salk developed a vaccine against polio myelitis
The Barbie Doll (launched in 1959)
The sixties decade is known for some interesting and useful inventions. Development of computers was one of the major inventions of the decade. The inception of few concepts of these inventions may have taken place in the 1950s; however, core developmental work of most of the devices took place in the 60s. The inventions of this period laid foundation for speedy growth of different technologies of the future. Let us understand about the inventors and inventions of the 1960s through information presented below. An attempt is made to include some of the notable inventions of the 1960s in this article. Let us have a look at them one-by-one.
1960s' Biggest Inventions
There are many inventions of 1960s which brought about great change in this world. Most of these were related to the field of computers. A list of few notable inventions of the 1960s is provided in the paragraphs below.
Computer Mouse: The computer mouse is a pointing device. Functioning of the mouse is based on the concept of detecting two-dimensional motion that takes places relative to its own supporting surface. Invention of trackball was a joint effort by Fred Longstaff, Tom Cranston and Kenyon Taylor in the year 1952. Bill English invented the ball mouse in 1972. Invention of the optical mouse took place at HP Labs due to the joint efforts of Travis N. Blalock, Thomas Hornal, Richard A. Baumgartner and Mark T. Smith.
Video Game Consoles: Magnavox Odyssey is the video game console designed by Ralph Baer. He started working on the prototype, 'Brown Box' in 1966 and completed the work in 1968. The Magnavox Odyssey was however, demonstrated on 24th May, 1972.
Space Observatories: These are instruments used for observing objects of the outer space. Space observatories are situated in the outer space. The planets, galaxies and other space bodies are studied through observations made by these instruments. It is one of the greatest inventions of all time.
Lasers: Theodore H. Maiman is credited with the invention of laser. Hughes Research Laboratory, Malibu, California is the place where Maiman made the first working laser; this technology was invented in the year 1960. The 694 nm (wavelength) red light was produced by Maiman with the help of flashlamp-pumped and solid-state synthetic ruby crystal.
Optical Discs: Binary data is encoded in the form of pits by optical discs. This data is stored on the surface of these discs with the help of materials like aluminum. Invention of the optical disc took place in the year 1958. A patent for analog optical disc was registered by David Paul Gregg in the years 1961 and 1969. Information about technology in 1970s should also prove to be useful.
Light-emitting Diodes: The phenomenon of electroluminescence which was discovered by H.J. Round of Britain is the base of light-emitting diodes. H.J. Round discovered electroluminescence in the year 1907. Nick Holonyak Jr. of General Electric Company first created a visible spectrum LED in the year 1962.
Cochlear Implant: This electronic device is implanted in ears by surgical means. For those with hearing problems, the cochlear implant provides a sense of sound and proves to be of help in the hearing process. Bionic ear is the other name given to cochlear implants. Development process which culminated into the creation of cochlear implant went through many phases. However, Count Alessandro Volt of Italy was the first person to carry out electrical stimulation of the auditory system.
The information about inventions of the 1960s presented through this article makes us aware of the important developments which took place in the field of technology. These inventions changed the way we experience this world. The sixties inventions can therefore, be considered as great milestones in the history of scientific development.
1960s' Biggest Inventions
There are many inventions of 1960s which brought about great change in this world. Most of these were related to the field of computers. A list of few notable inventions of the 1960s is provided in the paragraphs below.
Computer Mouse: The computer mouse is a pointing device. Functioning of the mouse is based on the concept of detecting two-dimensional motion that takes places relative to its own supporting surface. Invention of trackball was a joint effort by Fred Longstaff, Tom Cranston and Kenyon Taylor in the year 1952. Bill English invented the ball mouse in 1972. Invention of the optical mouse took place at HP Labs due to the joint efforts of Travis N. Blalock, Thomas Hornal, Richard A. Baumgartner and Mark T. Smith.
Video Game Consoles: Magnavox Odyssey is the video game console designed by Ralph Baer. He started working on the prototype, 'Brown Box' in 1966 and completed the work in 1968. The Magnavox Odyssey was however, demonstrated on 24th May, 1972.
Space Observatories: These are instruments used for observing objects of the outer space. Space observatories are situated in the outer space. The planets, galaxies and other space bodies are studied through observations made by these instruments. It is one of the greatest inventions of all time.
Lasers: Theodore H. Maiman is credited with the invention of laser. Hughes Research Laboratory, Malibu, California is the place where Maiman made the first working laser; this technology was invented in the year 1960. The 694 nm (wavelength) red light was produced by Maiman with the help of flashlamp-pumped and solid-state synthetic ruby crystal.
Optical Discs: Binary data is encoded in the form of pits by optical discs. This data is stored on the surface of these discs with the help of materials like aluminum. Invention of the optical disc took place in the year 1958. A patent for analog optical disc was registered by David Paul Gregg in the years 1961 and 1969. Information about technology in 1970s should also prove to be useful.
Light-emitting Diodes: The phenomenon of electroluminescence which was discovered by H.J. Round of Britain is the base of light-emitting diodes. H.J. Round discovered electroluminescence in the year 1907. Nick Holonyak Jr. of General Electric Company first created a visible spectrum LED in the year 1962.
Cochlear Implant: This electronic device is implanted in ears by surgical means. For those with hearing problems, the cochlear implant provides a sense of sound and proves to be of help in the hearing process. Bionic ear is the other name given to cochlear implants. Development process which culminated into the creation of cochlear implant went through many phases. However, Count Alessandro Volt of Italy was the first person to carry out electrical stimulation of the auditory system.
The information about inventions of the 1960s presented through this article makes us aware of the important developments which took place in the field of technology. These inventions changed the way we experience this world. The sixties inventions can therefore, be considered as great milestones in the history of scientific development.
The 1970s
The decades of 1950s and 1960s saw frequent face-offs between those who supported technological development and those who were opposed to it. However, it was the '70s decade that witnessed the convergence of technology and commerce. Computers, cars, space exploration are only few of the numerous technologies which developed and improved tremendously in these 10 years. Some of the notable inventions of this decade are the microprocessor chip, personal computer, cellular mobile phone and the e-mail.
Computers
With the development of Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor, progress in the field of computers gained momentum. Personal computers were manufactured as a result of large-scale integration in microprocessor chips. These were used in maintaining financial data, playing games, etc. Some of the important brands of personal computers released in this period were Apple II, Commodore PET, etc. in USA and the NEC PC-8001 in Japan. Personal computer was a totally new concept at that time. It led to the development of networking. Optical fiber - made of plastic or glass - was another path-breaking technology which proved to be useful for sending data at high bandwidths. Moreover, the signals carried by these fibers were capable of traveling long distances without much losses. Cray Research, Inc. proved to be a pioneer in the development of supercomputers as it released 'Cray-1' - world's first supercomputer.
Automobiles
The 1970s saw the advent of small cars in the automobile sector. Japan made their impression in the area of developing small cars more than any other country. The Japanese and German companies developed cars which were light in weight, fuel-efficient and also environment friendly. These cars also made their presence felt by introducing the concept of Alternate Fuel Vehicles - which used fuels other than petroleum.
Video Games
William Higinbotham created one of the first video games called 'Tennis for Two'. The arcade game of 'Pong' introduced by Atari became an instant hit. This home version of Pong made the video game company popular in no time. 'Galaxy Game' was the first video game operated by coins. This game was introduced in September, 1971 at the Stanford University.
Space Exploration
One of the major steps taken in the field of space exploration was the setting up of space stations on 19th May 1971 and 14th May 1973 by Russia and USA respectively. The 'Salyut' was Russia's space station while USA named its station as 'Skylab'. The 1970s witnessed co-operation in space research between these super powers. These were possibly the signs of end of 'Cold War' between the two nations.
Microwave Oven
The microwave ovens became popular in this decade because their prices fell; also the ovens became more compact. Although the development of these ovens started long back in the 1940s, Percy Spencer, an engineer, was the first to discover the use of microwaves for the purpose of cooking in 1947.
Cassette Tapes
These are magnetic tapes used for recording the sound. Cassette tapes gained popularity because of their capability to store songs. The cassette tapes were originally developed for the purpose of dictation. Improvement in the quality of recording made it possible to record songs as well.
LCD and LED
In the year 1972, Westinghouse Electric Corporation made the first active LCD panel. In those days, the company was located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in USA. The LCD panels were mainly used in gadgets like calculators, clocks and watches.
First Digital Camera
This camera was a prototype model built by Steven Sasson in the year 1975 while he was working at Eastman Kodak. The CCD image sensor chips were used to build this camera. Resolution of the camera was 0.01 megapixels.
Other Important Technological Inventions
In 1970, Dr. A. Jacques Beaulieu invented a laser called 'TEA Co2' with the help of a research team from the defense forces. This form of laser which was used in gas lasers needed high power to work.In 1973, the first Black Box playback - a mechanism to record flight information was started. This system was established at the Ottawa airport in Canada.Canada developed the most effective satellite system of that time in 1976; it was named as Hermes.
With the development of Intel 4004, the world's first microprocessor, progress in the field of computers gained momentum. Personal computers were manufactured as a result of large-scale integration in microprocessor chips. These were used in maintaining financial data, playing games, etc. Some of the important brands of personal computers released in this period were Apple II, Commodore PET, etc. in USA and the NEC PC-8001 in Japan. Personal computer was a totally new concept at that time. It led to the development of networking. Optical fiber - made of plastic or glass - was another path-breaking technology which proved to be useful for sending data at high bandwidths. Moreover, the signals carried by these fibers were capable of traveling long distances without much losses. Cray Research, Inc. proved to be a pioneer in the development of supercomputers as it released 'Cray-1' - world's first supercomputer.
Automobiles
The 1970s saw the advent of small cars in the automobile sector. Japan made their impression in the area of developing small cars more than any other country. The Japanese and German companies developed cars which were light in weight, fuel-efficient and also environment friendly. These cars also made their presence felt by introducing the concept of Alternate Fuel Vehicles - which used fuels other than petroleum.
Video Games
William Higinbotham created one of the first video games called 'Tennis for Two'. The arcade game of 'Pong' introduced by Atari became an instant hit. This home version of Pong made the video game company popular in no time. 'Galaxy Game' was the first video game operated by coins. This game was introduced in September, 1971 at the Stanford University.
Space Exploration
One of the major steps taken in the field of space exploration was the setting up of space stations on 19th May 1971 and 14th May 1973 by Russia and USA respectively. The 'Salyut' was Russia's space station while USA named its station as 'Skylab'. The 1970s witnessed co-operation in space research between these super powers. These were possibly the signs of end of 'Cold War' between the two nations.
Microwave Oven
The microwave ovens became popular in this decade because their prices fell; also the ovens became more compact. Although the development of these ovens started long back in the 1940s, Percy Spencer, an engineer, was the first to discover the use of microwaves for the purpose of cooking in 1947.
Cassette Tapes
These are magnetic tapes used for recording the sound. Cassette tapes gained popularity because of their capability to store songs. The cassette tapes were originally developed for the purpose of dictation. Improvement in the quality of recording made it possible to record songs as well.
LCD and LED
In the year 1972, Westinghouse Electric Corporation made the first active LCD panel. In those days, the company was located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in USA. The LCD panels were mainly used in gadgets like calculators, clocks and watches.
First Digital Camera
This camera was a prototype model built by Steven Sasson in the year 1975 while he was working at Eastman Kodak. The CCD image sensor chips were used to build this camera. Resolution of the camera was 0.01 megapixels.
Other Important Technological Inventions
In 1970, Dr. A. Jacques Beaulieu invented a laser called 'TEA Co2' with the help of a research team from the defense forces. This form of laser which was used in gas lasers needed high power to work.In 1973, the first Black Box playback - a mechanism to record flight information was started. This system was established at the Ottawa airport in Canada.Canada developed the most effective satellite system of that time in 1976; it was named as Hermes.
The 1980s
The 1980s were a time of the new awakening. Technology burst at its seams trying to make way and head for an era that would be dominated by machines, medicines, technology, and science. Here is a brief account of some of the most important inventions of this decade.
Hepatitis Vaccine
The Hepatitis virus is a disease that affects the liver and can lead to several complications of the liver, giving rise to several conditions like liver cancer, liver failure and liver scarring, even death. That is why this invention by Baruch Blumberg is considered a real breakthrough in the field of medicine. Baruch was an American research physician who discovered an antigen that released antibodies into the blood stream which worked against the hepatitis virus, particularly the Hepatitis B virus.
Apple Mackintosh
The Apple Mackintosh was the first successful home computer. This was commercially successful because it was the first time that a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI) were used. The Mac design was complete with a QuickDraw picture language and interpreter in 64 Kb of ROM. It had over 128 KB of RAM. The RAM was expendable to 512 KB. The final product's screen was 9 inches, and it had a 512x342 pixel monochrome display. It was brought into the market on January 24, 1984.
CD-ROM
Compact Disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) is a device that comes in the form of a pre-pressed compact disc and contains data that can be accessed but not written onto. It was released with the intention of feeding it with music, but later it was made into a form by which any binary data could be stored in it. It was used to transfer games and other computer software. There are certain CD types which hold only audio and others have audio plus data. The data CDs can be played only on computers, whereas the audio can be played on CD players as well. This invention came to be invented in 1985.
Artificial Human Heart
The first artificial heart was implanted into a man named Dr. Barney Clark on December 2, 1982. and he survived for 112 days after that. The heart was created by Dr. Robert Jarvik and perfected over years of experimentation. The artificial heart's shape and design were oval so that it would fit into the human chest. A blood compatible polyurethane was developed by a biomedical engineer Dr. Donald Lyman and a fabrication method was used which was developed by Kwan-Gett. This made the inside of the ventricles seamless and smooth such that it reduced the dangerous blood clots that are capable of causing strokes.
Other inventions of the 80s
The disposable camera (1986)
MS-DOS (1981)
Doppler radar (1988)
Apple Lisa (1983)
The RU-486 (abortion pill) (1988)
Windows operating system (1985)
Soft bifocal contact lens (1983)
Synthetic skin (1986)
First 3-D video game(1987)
Prozac (1988)
Disposable contact lenses (1987)
First IBM-PC (1981)
Soft bifocal contact lens (1983)
Human growth hormone (1982)
High-definition television (1989)
Digital cellular phones (1988)
DNA fingerprinting (1984)
Scanning tunneling microscope (1981)
Indiglo nightlight (1988)
Hepatitis Vaccine
The Hepatitis virus is a disease that affects the liver and can lead to several complications of the liver, giving rise to several conditions like liver cancer, liver failure and liver scarring, even death. That is why this invention by Baruch Blumberg is considered a real breakthrough in the field of medicine. Baruch was an American research physician who discovered an antigen that released antibodies into the blood stream which worked against the hepatitis virus, particularly the Hepatitis B virus.
Apple Mackintosh
The Apple Mackintosh was the first successful home computer. This was commercially successful because it was the first time that a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI) were used. The Mac design was complete with a QuickDraw picture language and interpreter in 64 Kb of ROM. It had over 128 KB of RAM. The RAM was expendable to 512 KB. The final product's screen was 9 inches, and it had a 512x342 pixel monochrome display. It was brought into the market on January 24, 1984.
CD-ROM
Compact Disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) is a device that comes in the form of a pre-pressed compact disc and contains data that can be accessed but not written onto. It was released with the intention of feeding it with music, but later it was made into a form by which any binary data could be stored in it. It was used to transfer games and other computer software. There are certain CD types which hold only audio and others have audio plus data. The data CDs can be played only on computers, whereas the audio can be played on CD players as well. This invention came to be invented in 1985.
Artificial Human Heart
The first artificial heart was implanted into a man named Dr. Barney Clark on December 2, 1982. and he survived for 112 days after that. The heart was created by Dr. Robert Jarvik and perfected over years of experimentation. The artificial heart's shape and design were oval so that it would fit into the human chest. A blood compatible polyurethane was developed by a biomedical engineer Dr. Donald Lyman and a fabrication method was used which was developed by Kwan-Gett. This made the inside of the ventricles seamless and smooth such that it reduced the dangerous blood clots that are capable of causing strokes.
Other inventions of the 80s
The disposable camera (1986)
MS-DOS (1981)
Doppler radar (1988)
Apple Lisa (1983)
The RU-486 (abortion pill) (1988)
Windows operating system (1985)
Soft bifocal contact lens (1983)
Synthetic skin (1986)
First 3-D video game(1987)
Prozac (1988)
Disposable contact lenses (1987)
First IBM-PC (1981)
Soft bifocal contact lens (1983)
Human growth hormone (1982)
High-definition television (1989)
Digital cellular phones (1988)
DNA fingerprinting (1984)
Scanning tunneling microscope (1981)
Indiglo nightlight (1988)
1991
- The world's first "webcam" comes into existence at Cambridge University. The actual camera remained in use for ten years (until 2001). It was invented by James Quentin and Paul Jardetzky.
- In 1991, Japan Electronic Industries Development Association produces the world's first memory card.
- Fujitsu Corporation displays the world's first plasma display screen in 1992.
The Ultraviolet Water Purifier - 1993
Ashok Gadgil, a Civil and Environment Engineering Professor, invented the method of using ultraviolet rays to disinfect drinking water. The project started at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California. It worked on a 60-watt solar cell battery and weighed only 15 pounds. The whole purification system works fast and costs as little as five cents for every thousand gallons. This invention helped a great deal in controlling water-borne diseases in developing nations. The UN and WHO sponsored this project and helped in distributing UV filter units in developing and poor nations. 3The Pentium Processor - 1993
The world was already head over heels in love with the World Wide Web and its magical abilities, but computers were not smart enough and fast enough to reciprocate the same feeling. Intel, which is now well-known as a technology giant of the world, entered the fray on March 22, 1993 when it launched its exclusive Pentium brand of microprocessors. The journey started with Pentium Classic and today it has landed into a completely new era, where Pentium is replaced by Intel Core Processors. However, the Pentium's contribution to technological development enabled the types of computer applications that we take for granted these days. The Intel Museum in Santa Clara, California proudly showcases the Pentium as one of its greatest achievements.The Glenn Anderson Transitway, part of Interstate highway 105, opened in Los Angeles, featuring a light rail train that runs in the median. Sensors buried in the pavement monitor traffic flow, and closed-circuit cameras were used to alert officials to accidents so that immediate rescue operations could be initiated.
The IBM Simon, the first smartphone, was released as a concept phone in 1993.
From 1995 to 1997
Java Programming Language - 1995Prior to the invention of Java programming language, C and C++ were the only popular languages used by coders and software developers. Java made it easy for programmers to code because it was class-based, concurrent and an object-oriented language that had very few implementation dependencies compared to existing languages. For client-server web applications, Java was a tailor-made fit. The major features of Java were its portability, dynamic scope, and secure design.
VOIP - 1995
Vocaltec, Inc., a telecommunication company based in Israel, was the first company to start VOIP services in 1995. Within three years, the VOIP market became very popular and PC-to-phone solutions flooded the markets. 5
In 1995, the Boeing 777, a twin-engine airplane, became the first ever plane to be designed using CAD and CAM.
In the same year, the Kodak digital camera and DVDs also came into existence. Amazon and eBay, two of the biggest online shopping portals now, also started their operations in the same year.
The Trans Pacific Cable 5 Network (TPC-5CN) was looped across the Pacific Ocean in 1995. It could handle 320,000 simultaneous telephone calls and it ran from Oregon to Japan beneath the ocean.
A group of seven companies including Intel, Microsoft, and Compaq produce the world's first ambitiously named Universal Serial Bus in 1996. Within a few years, it truly became universal as the default connection type for devices such as keyboards, mice, and printers.In 1997, Electrolux introduced the world's first robotic vacuum cleaner prototype, the Trilobite. It went into production in 2001 and it went on to become one of the 100 "most innovative designs of the century," but failed to stir up much dust in the vacuum cleaner market.
In 1996, Dolly, the first cloned sheep, was born. She went on to become the BBC World's "Most Popular Sheep." It was a huge step towards genetic cloning and nuclear transfer sciences.
In 1997 and 1998 respectively, Bell Labs introduced the smallest practical transistor and the optical router.
The Google Story - 1998
Arguably the biggest invention of all times, Google happened in 1998. It started as a research project by two PhD scholars at Stanford University in 1996. They introduced the concept of Page Ranking so that the search engines did not simply count the website hits while showing the search results on the WWW. During the initial runs at the Stanford University, Google or rather BackRub, the first name of Google, amazed many experts and professors. Two years after the commencement of the research project, Google was incorporated, and today it has become one of the greatest, and wealthiest, companies in the world.
Arguably the biggest invention of all times, Google happened in 1998. It started as a research project by two PhD scholars at Stanford University in 1996. They introduced the concept of Page Ranking so that the search engines did not simply count the website hits while showing the search results on the WWW. During the initial runs at the Stanford University, Google or rather BackRub, the first name of Google, amazed many experts and professors. Two years after the commencement of the research project, Google was incorporated, and today it has become one of the greatest, and wealthiest, companies in the world.
In 1998, the first two modules of the International Space Station were joined together in orbit on December 5 by astronauts from the Space Shuttle Endeavour.
Apple Inc.'s iMac
iMac was launched in 1998 and today it has become one of the most popular desktop computers in the world. The iMac was projected as an "out of the box" computer experience, and it actually became one because of its unique design and cool looks.
The Windows 98 operating system was also launched in the same year.
The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge opened for the public in Japan in 1998. It is the longest span bridge of the world with a span of 1991 meters. The overall length of the bridge is 3,911 meters.
BlackBerry - 1999
The first BlackBerry mobile device was launched in 1999. Four years later, the BlackBerry smartphone was launched in Germany. BlackBerry ruled the business smart phone market for quite some time until Google and Apple stepped up.
Bluetooth 1.0 - 1999
Mobile wireless file sharing came into the picture with the invention of Bluetooth technology. File sharing without connecting cables and remote browsing were some of the main features of this technology. Unlike cable transfers, it was not fast, but it was a major step towards mobile data sharing and would prove immensely popular for wireless headsets. 6
Apple Inc.'s iMac
iMac was launched in 1998 and today it has become one of the most popular desktop computers in the world. The iMac was projected as an "out of the box" computer experience, and it actually became one because of its unique design and cool looks.
The Windows 98 operating system was also launched in the same year.
The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge opened for the public in Japan in 1998. It is the longest span bridge of the world with a span of 1991 meters. The overall length of the bridge is 3,911 meters.
BlackBerry - 1999
The first BlackBerry mobile device was launched in 1999. Four years later, the BlackBerry smartphone was launched in Germany. BlackBerry ruled the business smart phone market for quite some time until Google and Apple stepped up.
Bluetooth 1.0 - 1999
Mobile wireless file sharing came into the picture with the invention of Bluetooth technology. File sharing without connecting cables and remote browsing were some of the main features of this technology. Unlike cable transfers, it was not fast, but it was a major step towards mobile data sharing and would prove immensely popular for wireless headsets. 6
The 2000s
There was a huge jump in broadband internet usage globally - for example, it comprised only 6% of U.S. internet users in June 2000 and one mid-decade study predicted 62% adoption by 2010. Yet, by February 2007, over 80% of US Internet users were connected via broadband and broadband internet became almost a required standard for quality internet browsing. There were 77.4 million broadband subscribers in the US in December 2008, with 264 million broadband subscribers alone in the top 30 countries at that time.There was a boom in music downloading and the use of data compression to quickly transfer music over the Internet, with a corresponding rise of portable digital audio players, typified by Apple Inc.'s iPod, along with other MP3 players. Digital music sales rose, accounting for 6% of all music sales in 2005.Digital music options were integrated into other devices such as smartphones and the popular PSP. By the latter half of the decade, generic MP3 players were starting[to mimic the features of the extremely popular iPod and Zune.As a result of the widespread popularity and social impact of Google Search, the word "google" became defined as a verb.Flash technology reached the point of being able to make video players. As a result, YouTube, a website which allows uploading and viewing videos, was created. YouTube's popularity grew explosively and it was acquired by Google.Due to an increase in capacity, USB flash drives rapidly replaced zip disks and 3.5-inch diskettes.Windows XP and Microsoft Office 2003 became the ubiquitous industry standard in personal computer software, although their successors Windows Vista and, by the end of the decade, Windows 7, saw increasing market penetration.Open source and free software continued to be a notable but minority interest, with versions of Linux gaining in popularity, as well as the Mozilla Firefox web browser and the OpenOffice.org document editor.Blogs, portals, and wikis became common electronic dissemination methods for professionals, amateurs, and businesses to conduct knowledge management.Wikipedia began and grew very rapidly, becoming the largest encyclopedia and most well known wiki in the world.Wireless networks became ever more commonplace in homes, education institutes and urban public spaces.Peer-to-peer technology use, such as internet telephony (Skype), file-sharing. The Internet became a major source of all types of media, from music to movies, thanks initially to file-sharing peer-to-peer programs such as KaZaA and Limewire. The debate continues over the ethics of file-sharing. Legal music download services such as iTunes and the re-designed Napster opened up a new market of digital downloading.
Software development
There was also a trend of offshoring software development work to cities like Dubai and Singapore - where Western developers rubbed shoulders with other foreign workers - and offshoring within the EU.
Videos
Digital cameras became very popular due to rapid decreases in size and cost while photo resolution steadily increased. As a result, sales of film reel cameras diminished greatly, and integration into mobile phones increased greatly; sexting by teenagers also became a controversial social issue, with teenagers - and even in one case a school administrator who investigated a sexting case - being arrested.Graphic cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560x1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture.Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade.Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones.The digital switchover started to be enforced for television.The introduction of Digital video recorders (DVRs) allowed consumers to modify content they watch on TV, and to record TV programs and watch them later, leading to problems as consumers could fast-forward through commercials, making them useless, and save TV shows for later viewing, causing a decline in live TV viewing. However, these problems were already present with video tapes.Internet usage surpassed TV viewing in 2004. Satellite TV and cable TV (with the exception of digital cable) lost ratings as network television ratings gradually increased.TV networks started streaming shows online.There was an increase in usage of online DVD rental services such as Netflix.DVDs, and subsequently Blu-ray Discs, replaced VCR technology as the common standard in homes and at video stores, although inexpensive VCRs and videocassettes could still be found at some thrift stores and discount stores.Vehicles
There were major advances in hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius, Ford Escape, and the Honda Insight.There was greater interest in future energy development due to global warming and the potential exhaustion of crude oil, even though these problems had been known about for decades. Photovoltaics increased in popularity as a result of increased public concern and generous public subsidies.Many more computers and other technologies were incorporated into vehicles, such as Xenon HID headlights, GPS, DVD players, self-diagnosing systems, advanced pre-collision safety systems, memory systems for car settings, back-up sensors and cameras, in-car media systems, MP3 player compatibility, USB drive compatibility, self-parking systems, keyless start and entry, satellite radio, voice-activation, cellphone connectivity, adaptive headlights, HUD (Head-Up-Display), infrared cameras, and Onstar (on GM models).Communications
The popularity of mobile phones and Text messaging surged in the 2000s (decade) in the Western world. The advent of text messaging made possible new forms of interaction that were not possible before, resulting in numerous boons such as the ability to receive information on the move. Nevertheless, it also led to negative social implications such as Text "bullying" and the rise of traffic collisions caused by drivers who were distracted as they were texting while driving.Due to the major success of broadband Internet connections, Voice over IP began to gain popularity as a replacement for traditional telephone lines. Major telecommunications carriers began converting their networks from TDM to VoIP.Unusually for a development heralded by science fiction, videophones were cheap and abundant, yet even by mid-decade, they had not received much attention.Mobile phones adopted features such as Internet access, PDA functions, running software applications, video calling, cameras and video recording, and music and video playback as standard. Higher end smartphones continue to offer extra features such as GPS and Wireless.Due to improvements in mobile phone displays and memories, most mobile phone carriers offered video viewing services, internet services, and some offered full music downloads, such as Sprint in 2005 and more common use of Bluetooth. This led to an almost saturation of cell phone ownership among the public, increasing the use of mobile phones as everyday carry items, and a sharp decline in the use and numbers of payphones.
Robotics
As in previous decades, robotics continued to develop, especially telerobotics in medicine, particularly for surgery.Home automation and home robotics advanced in North America; iRobot's "Roomba" was the most successful domestic robot and sold 1.5 million units. (Others of interest include: Robomower, and Scooba as of May 2006).The first robotic vehicle completed the DARPA Grand Challenge in 2005 and became the first vehicle to be able to navigate itself with no external interference.Humanoid robots and robot kits improved considerably, to the point of retailing as toys. This was typified by RoboSapien and Lego Mindstorms respectively.Space technology
GPS (Global Positioning System) became very popular, especially in the tracking of items or people, and the use in cars. Games that utilize the system, such as geocaching, emerged and developed a niche following.The Space Shuttle Columbia Disaster occurred in February 2003.SpaceshipOne made the first privately funded human spaceflight. (June 21, 2004)Healthcare
Corrective eye surgery became popular as costs and potential risk decreased and results further improved.244 new drugs were approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.General retail
RFID (Radio Frequency ID) became widely used in retail giants such as Wal-Mart, as a way to track items and automate stocking and keeping track of items.Self-serve kiosks became very widely available, and were used for all kinds of shopping, airplane boarding passes, hotel check-ins, fast food, banking, and car rental. ATMs became nearly universal in much of the First World and very common even in poorer countries and their rural areas.2010
2010 was big in terms of technology. The mobile application became king, upstaging mobile hardware. Google's Android went from strength to strength, even unsettling the iPhone. Cloud storage became a viable backup data destination.
Tuesday 4 February 2014
Key Concepts for Spot-Cleaning
By Martha Stewart
Blot
Trying to rub out a stain just pushes the spill into the pile and causes fibers to mat. Instead, blot up spills by covering the area with a clean towel or a thick pad of paper towels. Press down with the heel of your hand. Repeat using dry towels until all the liquid has been absorbed. If the spill is large, use a wet-dry vacuum (if available) to remove most of the material before blotting.
Soapy Water
Mix your own spot-cleaning solution by diluting a few drops of clear hand-dishwashing soap in water. (Laundry detergent is too alkaline, and creamy-looking hand-dishwashing soaps may leave a sticky residue.) Use less than 1/4 teaspoon per quart.
Rinse
To remove colored spills or spot-cleaning solutions, such as soapy water or vinegar, either mist the area with clean water, or blot it with a wet towel. Then blot area with a dry towel. Repeat these two steps until no more residue comes out. Do not rub, or the carpet fibers may become matted.
Out of the Carpet and Into the Air
The dust that collects in carpets may contribute to health problems -- particularly asthma, the most common chronic disease among children. Many vacuums worsen the problem by sending that dust shooting into the air, but a relatively new breed uses HEPA (high efficiency particle arresting) filters to trap essentially all of it in the machine.
When the Carpet and Rug Institute, a trade group, tested vacuums' effect on air quality, it found that just having a HEPA filter doesn't necessarily mean the machine is a clean one. The beater brush may still stir up dirt that becomes airborne. To be awarded the group's "green label" a vacuum cannot cause dust in the air to exceed 100 micrograms per cubic meter -- ess than the amount of dust a person generates by scratching his head a few times.
How to Clean Your Carpets
Carpet Type: Synthetic
Routine Care: Vacuuming -- Remove grit with multiple passes in varying directions. Use the beater brush, set to the pile height. Change bag when one-half full because efficiency decreases after that. Liquid Spills -- Clean promptly, using the blot technique described below. If the area discolors, there's probably a sticky spill residue that has trapped soil. Clean by misting with warm water and blotting.
Deep Cleaning on Your Own: Professional steam cleaning works best on wall-to-wall carpeting and may be required by the warranty. If you want to do it yourself, vacuum thoroughly, then use an extraction machine from a rental company (supermarket models are less powerful). Test cleaning solution by pouring a few drops into a saucer and allowing to evaporate (a hair drier speeds the process). If the dried residue in the saucer remains sticky, switch cleaners. Use fans or air-conditioning to dry carpet. Area rugs can be cleaned using the same methods.
Carpet Type: Wool
Routine Cleaning: Vacuuming -- Follow the instructions above, but avoid using a rotary brush on loop-pile (Berber) carpets; the yarn may fuzz. Instead, use a floor tool. Liquid Spills -- Clean by misting with water and blotting, as for synthetic carpets. Never use ammonia or any other highly alkaline cleaner, which can damage wool.
Deep-Cleaning On Your Own: For both area rugs and wall-to-wall carpets, home cleaning is not recommended because wool fibers absorb more water than synthetic fibers do. This makes them hard to dry, and area carpets become very heavy and difficult to maneuver. Plus, a lot of the available cleaners are too alkaline. Many of today's carpets, however -- even Oriental-style ones -- are actually made from synthetic fibers. To test for wool, snip a strand, and hold a lit match to it; burning wool smells like burned hair.
Carpet Type: Plant
Routine Cleaning: Vacumming -- Use the same technique as for synthetic carpets. A beater brush is the best way to remove grit, which causes excessive wear on these carpets. Liquid Spills -- Plant fibers are less stain-resistant than synthetics or wool, even if they have been treated with a water repellent, so blot spills promptly, following instructions below. Make sure damp areas dry quickly by using a fan or a hair drier (set on low heat).
Deep Cleaning On Your Own Manufacturers recommend the use of dry methods only. Leave that to a professional.
Removing Stains
Some commercial spot removers take off the protective coatings or break down dyes that are found on most carpets, but the remedies listed here do not. Note: Be sure to follow the instructions for spot-cleaning, "blot," "soapy water," and "rinse."
Stain Type: Organic blood, berries, candy, chocolate, soft drinks/coffee, gravy, ice cream.
Cleaner: Hydrogen Peroxide bleaches these stains without breaking down carpet dyes.
Mix: Buy 3 percent solution at a drugstore and use full strength.
Technique: Scoop up solids with a spoon. Blot liquids. Rinse repeatedly. If stain persists, use soapy water, then rinse. Repeat. If improvement stops, dab on hydrogen peroxide. Wait one hour. Repeat as needed.
Mud: Allow spill to dry. Break off pieces and vacuum. Rinse with soapy water. Go to hydrogen peroxide if needed.
Stain Type: Alkaline cat urine, beer.
Cleaner: White Vinegar, a mild acid, neutralizes alkaline spills.
Mix: 1 cup white vinegar in 1 cup water.
Technique: Blot up spill and rinse. If stain persists, use soapy water, then rinse. Repeat until spot is gone; if stain persists, apply vinegar solution with a spray bottle or a saturated towel. Blot with a dry towel; rinse. If stain persists, repeat.
Stain Type: Acidic ketchup, cough syrup, mixed drinks, soy sauce, watercolor paint.
Cleaner: Ammonia, an alkali, neutralizes acidic spills.
Mix: 1 tablespoon in 1/2 cup water.
Note: Never use on wool; it can destroy the fibers. Instead, dilute spill with plain water.
Technique: Blot up liquid spills. Scrape off solids with a spoon or knife. Apply ammonia solution with a spray bottle or a saturated towel. Blot out excess with dry towel. Rinse. If stain persists, use soapy water and rinse. Repeat until improvement stops. If stain persists, use hydrogen peroxide. See instructions above.
Caution: Ammonia is toxic. Use good ventilation.
Stain Type: Oily/Waxy asphalt and tar, wax and crayon, metal polish, grease, hand lotion, ballpoint ink, makeup.
Cleaner: Rubbing Alcohol, a mild "dry-cleaner," dissolves oily or waxy materials and is much safer than solvents in commercial spot removers.
Mix: Use full strength from bottle. Do not let it puddle; it may destroy the carpet backing.
Technique: Blot up or scrape off as much as possible (then, for wax, cover area with a brown paper towel, and transfer the wax by ironing on warm). Apply rubbing alcohol with a towel or cotton ball. For deep stains, blot with a clean towel, and repeat until towel remains clean. If spill is on the carpet tips, work material out by gently rubbing in one direction rather than blotting, which might drive the stain deeper. If stain persists, blot with soapy water and rinse; repeat. If needed, switch to hydrogen peroxide, as detailed above.
Stain Type: Chemically Reactive Acidic toilet-bowl cleaners, acne medication, lye-based drain cleaners, chlorine bleach, hair dye, iodine, insecticides, mustard with turmeric, plant fertilizers
Cleaner: Stain is permanent. For wall-to-wall carpet, call a professional to cut out the damaged area and patch with carpet from a closet or other hidden area. Alternatively, move furniture or set out pillows to cover stain. With area rugs, rotate so stain is in a less noticeable position.
Stain Type: Special Cases chewing gum, rust, nail polish
Technique: For chewing gum: Freeze with ice cubes. Break off bits, and pick them out. If that doesn't work, go to a janitorial supply store for a spray that freezes gum instantly and allows you to chip it off. For rust: Apply soapy water. Rinse. Repeat until improvement stops. If stain persists, call a professional who will have access to more powerful cleaners. For nail polish: Dab on non-oily nail-polish remover with a cotton ball. Do not get it on carpet backing. Blot and repeat
Blot
Trying to rub out a stain just pushes the spill into the pile and causes fibers to mat. Instead, blot up spills by covering the area with a clean towel or a thick pad of paper towels. Press down with the heel of your hand. Repeat using dry towels until all the liquid has been absorbed. If the spill is large, use a wet-dry vacuum (if available) to remove most of the material before blotting.
Soapy Water
Mix your own spot-cleaning solution by diluting a few drops of clear hand-dishwashing soap in water. (Laundry detergent is too alkaline, and creamy-looking hand-dishwashing soaps may leave a sticky residue.) Use less than 1/4 teaspoon per quart.
Rinse
To remove colored spills or spot-cleaning solutions, such as soapy water or vinegar, either mist the area with clean water, or blot it with a wet towel. Then blot area with a dry towel. Repeat these two steps until no more residue comes out. Do not rub, or the carpet fibers may become matted.
Out of the Carpet and Into the Air
The dust that collects in carpets may contribute to health problems -- particularly asthma, the most common chronic disease among children. Many vacuums worsen the problem by sending that dust shooting into the air, but a relatively new breed uses HEPA (high efficiency particle arresting) filters to trap essentially all of it in the machine.
When the Carpet and Rug Institute, a trade group, tested vacuums' effect on air quality, it found that just having a HEPA filter doesn't necessarily mean the machine is a clean one. The beater brush may still stir up dirt that becomes airborne. To be awarded the group's "green label" a vacuum cannot cause dust in the air to exceed 100 micrograms per cubic meter -- ess than the amount of dust a person generates by scratching his head a few times.
How to Clean Your Carpets
Carpet Type: Synthetic
Routine Care: Vacuuming -- Remove grit with multiple passes in varying directions. Use the beater brush, set to the pile height. Change bag when one-half full because efficiency decreases after that. Liquid Spills -- Clean promptly, using the blot technique described below. If the area discolors, there's probably a sticky spill residue that has trapped soil. Clean by misting with warm water and blotting.
Deep Cleaning on Your Own: Professional steam cleaning works best on wall-to-wall carpeting and may be required by the warranty. If you want to do it yourself, vacuum thoroughly, then use an extraction machine from a rental company (supermarket models are less powerful). Test cleaning solution by pouring a few drops into a saucer and allowing to evaporate (a hair drier speeds the process). If the dried residue in the saucer remains sticky, switch cleaners. Use fans or air-conditioning to dry carpet. Area rugs can be cleaned using the same methods.
Carpet Type: Wool
Routine Cleaning: Vacuuming -- Follow the instructions above, but avoid using a rotary brush on loop-pile (Berber) carpets; the yarn may fuzz. Instead, use a floor tool. Liquid Spills -- Clean by misting with water and blotting, as for synthetic carpets. Never use ammonia or any other highly alkaline cleaner, which can damage wool.
Deep-Cleaning On Your Own: For both area rugs and wall-to-wall carpets, home cleaning is not recommended because wool fibers absorb more water than synthetic fibers do. This makes them hard to dry, and area carpets become very heavy and difficult to maneuver. Plus, a lot of the available cleaners are too alkaline. Many of today's carpets, however -- even Oriental-style ones -- are actually made from synthetic fibers. To test for wool, snip a strand, and hold a lit match to it; burning wool smells like burned hair.
Carpet Type: Plant
Routine Cleaning: Vacumming -- Use the same technique as for synthetic carpets. A beater brush is the best way to remove grit, which causes excessive wear on these carpets. Liquid Spills -- Plant fibers are less stain-resistant than synthetics or wool, even if they have been treated with a water repellent, so blot spills promptly, following instructions below. Make sure damp areas dry quickly by using a fan or a hair drier (set on low heat).
Deep Cleaning On Your Own Manufacturers recommend the use of dry methods only. Leave that to a professional.
Removing Stains
Some commercial spot removers take off the protective coatings or break down dyes that are found on most carpets, but the remedies listed here do not. Note: Be sure to follow the instructions for spot-cleaning, "blot," "soapy water," and "rinse."
Stain Type: Organic blood, berries, candy, chocolate, soft drinks/coffee, gravy, ice cream.
Cleaner: Hydrogen Peroxide bleaches these stains without breaking down carpet dyes.
Mix: Buy 3 percent solution at a drugstore and use full strength.
Technique: Scoop up solids with a spoon. Blot liquids. Rinse repeatedly. If stain persists, use soapy water, then rinse. Repeat. If improvement stops, dab on hydrogen peroxide. Wait one hour. Repeat as needed.
Mud: Allow spill to dry. Break off pieces and vacuum. Rinse with soapy water. Go to hydrogen peroxide if needed.
Stain Type: Alkaline cat urine, beer.
Cleaner: White Vinegar, a mild acid, neutralizes alkaline spills.
Mix: 1 cup white vinegar in 1 cup water.
Technique: Blot up spill and rinse. If stain persists, use soapy water, then rinse. Repeat until spot is gone; if stain persists, apply vinegar solution with a spray bottle or a saturated towel. Blot with a dry towel; rinse. If stain persists, repeat.
Stain Type: Acidic ketchup, cough syrup, mixed drinks, soy sauce, watercolor paint.
Cleaner: Ammonia, an alkali, neutralizes acidic spills.
Mix: 1 tablespoon in 1/2 cup water.
Note: Never use on wool; it can destroy the fibers. Instead, dilute spill with plain water.
Technique: Blot up liquid spills. Scrape off solids with a spoon or knife. Apply ammonia solution with a spray bottle or a saturated towel. Blot out excess with dry towel. Rinse. If stain persists, use soapy water and rinse. Repeat until improvement stops. If stain persists, use hydrogen peroxide. See instructions above.
Caution: Ammonia is toxic. Use good ventilation.
Stain Type: Oily/Waxy asphalt and tar, wax and crayon, metal polish, grease, hand lotion, ballpoint ink, makeup.
Cleaner: Rubbing Alcohol, a mild "dry-cleaner," dissolves oily or waxy materials and is much safer than solvents in commercial spot removers.
Mix: Use full strength from bottle. Do not let it puddle; it may destroy the carpet backing.
Technique: Blot up or scrape off as much as possible (then, for wax, cover area with a brown paper towel, and transfer the wax by ironing on warm). Apply rubbing alcohol with a towel or cotton ball. For deep stains, blot with a clean towel, and repeat until towel remains clean. If spill is on the carpet tips, work material out by gently rubbing in one direction rather than blotting, which might drive the stain deeper. If stain persists, blot with soapy water and rinse; repeat. If needed, switch to hydrogen peroxide, as detailed above.
Stain Type: Chemically Reactive Acidic toilet-bowl cleaners, acne medication, lye-based drain cleaners, chlorine bleach, hair dye, iodine, insecticides, mustard with turmeric, plant fertilizers
Cleaner: Stain is permanent. For wall-to-wall carpet, call a professional to cut out the damaged area and patch with carpet from a closet or other hidden area. Alternatively, move furniture or set out pillows to cover stain. With area rugs, rotate so stain is in a less noticeable position.
Stain Type: Special Cases chewing gum, rust, nail polish
Technique: For chewing gum: Freeze with ice cubes. Break off bits, and pick them out. If that doesn't work, go to a janitorial supply store for a spray that freezes gum instantly and allows you to chip it off. For rust: Apply soapy water. Rinse. Repeat until improvement stops. If stain persists, call a professional who will have access to more powerful cleaners. For nail polish: Dab on non-oily nail-polish remover with a cotton ball. Do not get it on carpet backing. Blot and repeat
Monday 3 February 2014
Written all over your face: Humans express four basic emotions rather than six
New research into facial expressions suggests that there are only four basic emotions, not the six that have always been considered.
Human beings are emotional creatures whose state of mind can usually be observed through their facial expressions.
A commonly-held belief, first proposed by Dr Paul Ekman, posits there are six basic emotions which are universally recognized and easily interpreted through specific facial expressions, regardless of language or culture. These are: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust.
New research published in the journal Current Biology by scientists at the University of Glasgow has challenged this view, and suggested that there are only four basic emotions.
Their conclusion was reached by studying the range of different muscles within the face -- or Action Units as researchers refer to them -- involved in signalling different emotions, as well as the time-frame over which each muscle was activated.
This is the first such study to objectively examine the 'temporal dynamics' of facial expressions, made possible by using a unique Generative Face Grammar platform developed at the University of Glasgow.
The team from the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology claim that while the facial expression signals of happiness and sadness are clearly distinct across time, fear and surprise share a common signal -- the wide open eyes -- early in the signalling dynamics.
Similarly, anger and disgust share the wrinkled nose. It is these early signals that could represent more basic danger signals. Later in the signalling dynamics, facial expressions transmit signals that distinguish all six 'classic' facial expressions of emotion.
Lead researcher Dr Rachael Jack said: "Our results are consistent with evolutionary predictions, where signals are designed by both biological and social evolutionary pressures to optimize their function.
"First, early danger signals confer the best advantages to others by enabling the fastest escape. Secondly, physiological advantages for the expresser -- the wrinkled nose prevents inspiration of potentially harmful particles, whereas widened eyes increases intake of visual information useful for escape -- are enhanced when the face movements are made early.
"What our research shows is that not all facial muscles appear simultaneously during facial expressions, but rather develop over time supporting a hierarchical biologically-basic to socially-specific information over time."
In compiling their research the team used special techniques and software developed at the University of Glasgow to synthesize all facial expressions.
The Generative Face Grammar -- developed by Professor Philippe Schyns, Dr Oliver Garrod and Dr Hui Yu -- uses cameras to capture a three-dimensional image of faces of individuals specially trained to be able to activate all 42 individual facial muscles independently.
From this a computer can then generate specific or random facial expressions on a 3D model based on the activation of different Actions Units or groups of units to mimic all facial expressions.
By asking volunteers to observe the realistic model as it pulled various expressions -- thereby providing a true four-dimensional experience -- and state which emotion was being expressed the researchers are able to see which specific Action Units observers associate with particular emotions.
It was through this method they found that the signals for fear/surprise and anger/disgust were confused at the early stage of transmission and only became clearer later when other Action Units were activated.
Dr Jack said: "Our research questions the notion that human emotion communication comprises six basic, psychologically irreducible categories. Instead we suggest there are four basic expressions of emotion.
"We show that 'basic' facial expression signals are perceptually segmented across time and follow an evolving hierarchy of signals over time -- from the biologically-rooted basic signals to more complex socially-specific signals.
"Over time, and as humans migrated across the globe, socioecological diversity probably further specialized once-common facial expressions, altering the number, variety and form of signals across cultures."
The researchers intend to develop their study by looking at facial expressions of different cultures, including East Asian populations whom they have already ascertained interpret some of the six classical emotions differently -- placing more emphasis on eye signals than mouth movements compared to Westerners.
Culled from www.sciencedaily.com
Human beings are emotional creatures whose state of mind can usually be observed through their facial expressions.
A commonly-held belief, first proposed by Dr Paul Ekman, posits there are six basic emotions which are universally recognized and easily interpreted through specific facial expressions, regardless of language or culture. These are: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise and disgust.
New research published in the journal Current Biology by scientists at the University of Glasgow has challenged this view, and suggested that there are only four basic emotions.
Their conclusion was reached by studying the range of different muscles within the face -- or Action Units as researchers refer to them -- involved in signalling different emotions, as well as the time-frame over which each muscle was activated.
This is the first such study to objectively examine the 'temporal dynamics' of facial expressions, made possible by using a unique Generative Face Grammar platform developed at the University of Glasgow.
The team from the Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology claim that while the facial expression signals of happiness and sadness are clearly distinct across time, fear and surprise share a common signal -- the wide open eyes -- early in the signalling dynamics.
Similarly, anger and disgust share the wrinkled nose. It is these early signals that could represent more basic danger signals. Later in the signalling dynamics, facial expressions transmit signals that distinguish all six 'classic' facial expressions of emotion.
Lead researcher Dr Rachael Jack said: "Our results are consistent with evolutionary predictions, where signals are designed by both biological and social evolutionary pressures to optimize their function.
"First, early danger signals confer the best advantages to others by enabling the fastest escape. Secondly, physiological advantages for the expresser -- the wrinkled nose prevents inspiration of potentially harmful particles, whereas widened eyes increases intake of visual information useful for escape -- are enhanced when the face movements are made early.
"What our research shows is that not all facial muscles appear simultaneously during facial expressions, but rather develop over time supporting a hierarchical biologically-basic to socially-specific information over time."
In compiling their research the team used special techniques and software developed at the University of Glasgow to synthesize all facial expressions.
The Generative Face Grammar -- developed by Professor Philippe Schyns, Dr Oliver Garrod and Dr Hui Yu -- uses cameras to capture a three-dimensional image of faces of individuals specially trained to be able to activate all 42 individual facial muscles independently.
From this a computer can then generate specific or random facial expressions on a 3D model based on the activation of different Actions Units or groups of units to mimic all facial expressions.
By asking volunteers to observe the realistic model as it pulled various expressions -- thereby providing a true four-dimensional experience -- and state which emotion was being expressed the researchers are able to see which specific Action Units observers associate with particular emotions.
It was through this method they found that the signals for fear/surprise and anger/disgust were confused at the early stage of transmission and only became clearer later when other Action Units were activated.
Dr Jack said: "Our research questions the notion that human emotion communication comprises six basic, psychologically irreducible categories. Instead we suggest there are four basic expressions of emotion.
"We show that 'basic' facial expression signals are perceptually segmented across time and follow an evolving hierarchy of signals over time -- from the biologically-rooted basic signals to more complex socially-specific signals.
"Over time, and as humans migrated across the globe, socioecological diversity probably further specialized once-common facial expressions, altering the number, variety and form of signals across cultures."
The researchers intend to develop their study by looking at facial expressions of different cultures, including East Asian populations whom they have already ascertained interpret some of the six classical emotions differently -- placing more emphasis on eye signals than mouth movements compared to Westerners.
Culled from www.sciencedaily.com
Saturday 1 February 2014
TechWomen: Empowering Women in STEM
TechWomen empowers, connects, and supports the next generation of women leaders in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) from Africa and the Middle East by providing them the access and opportunity needed to advance their careers, pursue their dreams, and inspire women and girls in their communities.
Through mentorship and exchange, TechWomen strengthens participants’ professional capacity, increases mutual understanding between key networks of professionals, and expands girls’ interest in STEM careers by exposing them to female role models.
TechWomen is an initiative of the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.
Emerging Leader application is open on www.techwomen.org until February 10, 2014.
APPLY TODAY!
Through mentorship and exchange, TechWomen strengthens participants’ professional capacity, increases mutual understanding between key networks of professionals, and expands girls’ interest in STEM careers by exposing them to female role models.
TechWomen is an initiative of the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.
Emerging Leader application is open on www.techwomen.org until February 10, 2014.
APPLY TODAY!
Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program
The Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program provides grants to approximately 850 foreign scholars from over 100 countries to conduct post-doctoral research at U.S. institutions from an academic semester to a full academic year.
PROGRAM LENGTH
3 - 6 months, 6 months - 1 year
Eligibility and Application Overview
Public applications are accepted.
To participate in the Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program, the applicant must have:
a doctoral degree or equivalent professional training or experience at the time of application.sufficient proficiency in the English language to carry out the project required.
- See more at: http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/fulbright-visiting-scholar-program#sthash.9znyllBP.dpuf
PROGRAM LENGTH
3 - 6 months, 6 months - 1 year
Eligibility and Application Overview
Public applications are accepted.
To participate in the Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program, the applicant must have:
a doctoral degree or equivalent professional training or experience at the time of application.sufficient proficiency in the English language to carry out the project required.
- See more at: http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/fulbright-visiting-scholar-program#sthash.9znyllBP.dpuf
The Global Connections and Exchange Program
The Global Connections and Exchange (GCE) Program supports collaboration and online linkages among students, educators, and community youth leaders from U.S. and overseas secondary schools and youth organizations.
GCE participants expand their computer literacy skills, gain a deeper understanding of and respect for other countries' cultures, and learn to better use technology in order to develop their leadership skills and influence change in their communities.
Participants at each of the U.S. and overseas sites engage in specialized trainings in digital dialogue and online media sharing, interactive theme-based discussions, and community outreach while collaborating on projects that are relevant to their communities.
Program Length15-24 months, depending on the project
Eligibility and Application Overview
Not open to public applications. Candidates are invited or nominated to participate.
Though each project has its own specific eligibility criteria, youth participants must be:
Secondary school students;Between the ages of 15-18, and;From the same schools, classes, or youth clubs/organizations.
Educators are from participating schools or youth centers.
- See more at: http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/global-connections-and-exchange#sthash.3vHHMXug.dpuf
GCE participants expand their computer literacy skills, gain a deeper understanding of and respect for other countries' cultures, and learn to better use technology in order to develop their leadership skills and influence change in their communities.
Participants at each of the U.S. and overseas sites engage in specialized trainings in digital dialogue and online media sharing, interactive theme-based discussions, and community outreach while collaborating on projects that are relevant to their communities.
Program Length15-24 months, depending on the project
Eligibility and Application Overview
Not open to public applications. Candidates are invited or nominated to participate.
Though each project has its own specific eligibility criteria, youth participants must be:
Secondary school students;Between the ages of 15-18, and;From the same schools, classes, or youth clubs/organizations.
Educators are from participating schools or youth centers.
- See more at: http://exchanges.state.gov/non-us/program/global-connections-and-exchange#sthash.3vHHMXug.dpuf
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